the period of accords

1917-1923

British soldiers bringing Bedouin prisoners into Mersa Matruh, 1915 (c). National Army Museum

The Treaty of Acroma

During the years 1917 to 1923, which were known as the Period of Accords, the Turkish Government and their military were replaced in Cyrenaica by the Sanussi Order, which was deemed by the Italians as the only body able to negotiate between the local Bedouin tribes and the ruling Italian Government1. The head of the Senussi order was at that time Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi, who in 1916 had taken over leadership of the Senussi order, after the abdication of his cousin2.

In April 1917, Italy and the Senussi Order headed by Idris, signed an agreement known as the ‘Treaty of Acroma’ or the ‘modus vivendi’ of Acroma, at Acroma (also Akramah and Ikrimah) a town in northeastern Libya in the Butnan District, approximately 28 km west of Tobruk. The Treaty acknowledged that Cyrenaica apart from the coastal areas would remain under Senussi control, this was subsequent to the vanquishment of the Turkish military, and thus ushered in a period of uneasy peace between the warring parties3.

Fighting on the Egyptian Western Frontier 1915 - Indian Army Soldiers of the British Army guard injured Bedouin prisoners of war. National Army Museum Collection

The Legge Fondamentale

At the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed an armistice agreement in which they ceded their claims over Libya to Italy.[6] Italy however was facing serious economic, social, and political problems domestically, and was not prepared to re-launch its military activities in Libya.[6] It issued statutes known as the Legge Fondamentale with both the Tripolitanian Republic in June 1919[7] and Cyrenaica in October 1919. These brought about a compromise by which all Libyans were accorded the right to a joint Libyan-Italian citizenship while each province was to have its own parliament and governing council.[6] The Senussi were largely happy with this arrangement and Idris visited Rome as part of the celebrations to mark the promulgation of the settlement.[6]

King Victor Emmanuel Receives Senussi Delegation in Rome, La Domenica De Corriere Newspaer, June 1919

The Savaris

This period, although relatively peaceful, saw a tense coexistence between the Italian army and the local bedouin tribes, and was marred by periodic clashes as local resistance continued. These periodic skirmishes were the result of attacks conducted by local bedouin tribes in the vein of guerilla warfare, directly waged against the Italians, with the local tribesman organising ambushes on Italian camps and patrols, with raids on Italian strongholds and sniper attacks. Many of the locals, who lived in close quarters with the occupying Italians, maintained a neutral stance in relation to the Italian colonisers, and a percentage even collaborated with and worked for the Italian military. These collaborating locals were known by the Italians as the Native Battalions. These included the Savaris and Spahis, both being part of the Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops. The Savaris, were Libyan cavalry regiments, which were raised from local tribes, beginning in December 1912, after the invasion of Tripoli4.

Savari: a Local Libyan Soldier of the Army of the Kingdom of Italy in Libya, 1920s

The Spahis

The Spahis were formed during this same period and their main role was to act as mounted police, often bringing their own horses and being paid a grant by the Italian government5. Interestingly, although being paid and allocated rations by the Italian military, many members of the Native Battalions maintained covert allegiances to the warring Bedouin groups, who were known as the Patriots. The Spahis often secretly supplied the Patriots with smuggled guns, ammunition and money. They were also known to provide Patriots with food and shelter when requested, in addition to providing them with critical information on Italian activity and strategic Italian battle plans 6.

Spahis in Italian Libya. Photo Karl Schwabe circa 1935. Published by Verlag Josef Kösel Pustet, München 1935.

Baron Amadeo Guillet, Colonel in the Italian Army, with Spahi in Libya, 1930s.

During this time, Omar Al Mukhtar and his tribesmen continued their fight against Italian penetration, and was widely regarded as a hero amongst the local bedouins. It is said that he had informants in every Italian post and was able to outwit every attempt by the Italians to capture him. His endless support from locals and native battalions enabled him and his men to attack and quickly disappear, being given cover and shelter from the Italian forces7.

Finally, on October 25, 1920, Italian and Senussi tribe representatives signed the Accord of al-Rajma in Rome, through which the Italian government formally recognised Senussi leader Sheikh Sayyid Idris, as Emir of Cyrenaica, granting the land autonomy 8. Shortly thereafter, in 1922 the leaders of the Tripolitanian Republic extended the role of Emir of Tripolitania to Idris 9.

Idris Al Senussi Signs the Al Rajma Treaty with Governor of Italian occupied Cyrenaica: De Martino.

King Idris in Rome signing the Accord of Al Rajma, October 1920

However, just prior to Idris accepting the position, Benito Mussolino’s newly formed government, initiated a new Italian campaign of reconquest10. In December 1922, deeming it unsafe to remain in Libya due to the continuing dispute with the Italians, Shaik Sayyid Idris made the journey to Jaghbub and then onto Egypt, where he remained in exile until 1943. At this time his brother and successor, Sheikh Muhammed al-Rida and his cousin Sheik Safi al-Din, were left to represent him in Cyrenaica.

Sheikh Muhammed al-Rida led a patriot force against the Italians in Cyrenaica of between 2000 - 6000 men, but was ultimately captured by the Italians in January 1928, and taken as a captive to Sicily11.

Following Sheikh al-Rida’s captivity, the role of leader of the Sanussis in Libya, fell to Omar, who was at that time residing in Egypt with Sheikh Sayyid Idris. Subsequently, in 1923, when Omar was already over 60 years old, he was called to lead the Patriots in the second Italo-Sanussi War12.

Prince Said Idriss Senussi with his brother Rida, circa WII, photograph by Frank Hurley. National Library of Australia

FOOTNOTES.

  1. “Idris of Libya”. Wikipedia. August 20. 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_of_LibyaEvans-Pritchard, E.E. The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1954. pp 12-13.

  2. “Idris of Libya”. Wikipedia. August 20. 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_of_Libya.

  3. Vandewalle, Dirk. A History of Modern Libya. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2012.

  4. “Savari”. Wikipedia. August 20. 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savari#History.

  5. “Italian Spahis”. Wikipedia. August 20. 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Spahisc.

  6. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954. Pg.12-13.

  7. Ibid.

  8. Page, Melvin E. Colonialism. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. 2003. Pg. 749.

  9. Ibid.

  10. Ibid.

  11. Vandewalle, Dirk. A History of Modern Libya. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2012. Pg 30.

  12. Ibid.