The First Italian Invasion 1911-1916

Italian troops coming ashore in Tripoli, 1914

ITALIAN DOMESTIC POLITICS AND PROPAGANDA SUPPORTING THE INVASION OF LIBYA

The Italian invasion of Libya began on September 29, 1911, with the bombardment by battleships of the capital city of Tripoli. The Italian forces were led by General Carlo Caneva, under the orders of Prime Minister Giovani Giolitt1.

Italian Landing at Tripoli in 1911. Photo from ‘The Martyr Omar al-Mukhtar Festival Catalogue of Exhibition’, Arabic-English version, Benghazi, 1979, P.22.

The invasion of Libya was motivated in part by Italy seeking to secure its own colonial empire by extending into Africa, as had Britain and France. Libya, then under the control of the weakened Ottoman Empire, presented an opportunity for expanding Italy’s influence in North Africa. Libya was an ideal location, lying directly south of Italy across the Mediterranean. The Italians set up initiatives seeking to drum up support for the colonisation to commence, referring to Libya as a key to the ‘Fourth Shore’, a name coined by Benito Mussolini for the North African coastal region they wished to secure for Italy2.

Italian propaganda poster hailing the eventual transformation of Libya into the Italian ‘Fourth Shore’, 1911.

From the 1880’s onwards, the Italians had initiated what was referred to as a ‘peaceful penetration’ into Libya, by encouraging their people to emigrate to Libya even though it was, at the time, still a province of the Ottoman Empire and was governed by the Ottomans.

Workers in a Tobacco Factory, Libya. 1910.

The ‘peaceful penetration’ was helped by the regular arrival of Italian shipping lines at all of the Libyan ports, along with the building of Italian speaking schools, in order to encourage use of the Italian language and acceptance of the culture. The most important however, from an economical perspective, was the 1907 opening of the first branch of the ‘Bank of Roma’ in Tripoli. The Bank of Roma went on to open many other branches and finance businesses across Libya. However, at this early period of informal expansionist policy, the bank was prohibited from engaging in the purchase of land, thus making it impossible to formalise legally the Italian acquisition of Libyan land, through peaceful penetration 3.

Banco Roma Benghasi, 1910.

The Ottoman Empire, although a ruling administrative entity in Libya, had little to do with overseeing the tribal communities, with most of their dealings and business with the tribes managed through the Senussi Order. At this time, the local tribes were mainly self-governing and as long as they remained loyal to Ottoman rule and paid their taxes, they were left to their own devices. This suited both the Ottoman governors and the local tribes people, although the taxes imposed on them by the Ottomans were often a source of anger and irritation. However, the tribes, having lived this way for many years, were aware of the potentially drastic and unfavourable changes which could be effected should a new governing body come into force, with the Ottomans being replaced by European colonists. This concern was in part due to having witnessed the effects of European colonies on other African territories. For this reason, as well as the sense that their shared Islamic religious beliefs necessitated that they stand together in protecting what was the land of Islamic peoples against Christian colonisers, they chose to stand shoulder to shoulder with the Ottomans when the Italians eventually launched a formal invasion of Libyan territory in 19114.

Ottoman Authorities, Benghazi, Ottoman Empire, 1900s.

Scene of the dock and port of tripoli in the days preceding the outbreak of hostilities. September 1911. Archivo ABC. Charles Trampus

THE LAUNCH OF THE ITALIAN INVASION

The Italian invasion of Libya began on September 29, 1911, with the bombardment by battleships of the capital city of Tripoli. The Italian forces were led by General Carlo Caneva, under the orders of Prime Minister Giovani Giolitt1.

‘Turkish-Italian War - The Invasion of Tripoli’. Imperial War Museum Footage.

“An Italian amphibious landing near the town of Tripoli in the Ottoman province of Tripolitania, Turkish-Italian War, 1911. Italian battleships escort their transports towards Tripoli. The battleships Francesco Fernuccio and Re Umberto form part of the escort. View from the shore of the Italian fleet, out at sea, bombarding shore positions. Lighters tow Italian soldiers in boats ashore for an unopposed landing. Other soldiers (in tropical kit) are landed on a wooden mole. A barge brings horses ashore. As Arabs watch, the Italians start to march off the beach. They have a tented camp inland from the town where the men rest and prepare a meal.”

With just three days until the feast of Eid al-Adha, Omar left his family and took to the road with his army. He joined forces in Bennina, Benghazi, with Ottoman troops and other Senussi Sheiks and their men. Omar and his men were greeted with much appreciation, as his reputation for bravery and wisdom was well known amongst the Ottoman troops and the many tribes, who were gathered for battle6.

Italian Troops Landing from the Italian Cruiser 'Varese', after the bombardment of Tripoli, Libya during the Turco-Italian War, October 1911.

Omar, who was at this time in Jalu, Cyrenaica, dealing with affairs on behalf of the Sanussis, heard of the arrival of Italian battleships at Tripoli and returned at once to Zawiyat al-Quasar, where he enlisted as many people as he could from the ‘Abid tribe, to join the fight. His followers answered his call to jihad and more than a thousand took up arms against the Italian forces. It was during this period that Omar became known as ‘The Sheik of Mujahadeen’5.

Italian Gunboat ‘The Pisa’ arrives at Tripoli harbour, 1911.

Occupation of Tripoli. Disembarkation of the Italian Troops with their war material. Archivo ABC Charles Abeniacar. 30 September 1911.

Over the next two years of the first Italian invasion, Omar and his men, along with around 5,000 Ottoman troops, fought many battles against the invading forces of the Italian army and their conscripted troops from Eritrea and Somalia.

Several important battles which took place during this period between 1911 and 1912 were the Siege of Tripoli (October 1911)7, the Battle of Benghazi (20 October 1911 - 18 October 1912)8, the Battle of Ain Zara (December 1911)9, and the numerous battles of Zanzur, which were fought between 1911-12 (December 1911 to June 1912)10.

Italian troops firing on the Turks during a combat in the vicinity of Tripoli. Album Archivo ABC M. Rol. October 1911.

The Siege of Tripoli

Italian Troops entering and taking possession of Tripoli, during the Turco-Italian War, 1911.

The taking of the capitol, Tripoli, was a crucial objective for the Italian forces seeking to establish a strong foothold on Libyan territory. At the time, Tripoli was defended by a very limited Ottoman force of approximately 2,000 men, housed in small garrisons. The strategy of the Italian forces, was to begin with a naval blockade, which was then followed closely by an amphibious assault. On the 2nd October, 1911, Admiral Luigi Faravelli, commander of the Italian fleet, was ordered to deploy the fleet in front of Tripoli harbour, due to the imminent arrival of extra Italian forces and also to prevent the unloading of further goods and troops from Turkey. Following this, on the 3rd October 1911, at 15.30, the Italian naval battleships Benedetto Brin and Emauele Filiberto began the cannonade bombardment of Tripoli, followed by the armoured cruisers Guiseppe Garibaldi and Carlo Alberto11.

After nearly two hours of continuous bombing and shelling, the firing ceased, leaving in its wake severe damage to all Ottoman forts, whilst civilian properties were left largely undamaged12.

Turkish and Arab troops by surprise, attack Italian positions around Tripoli. Illustration from Italian Newspaper ‘La Domenica del Corriere’ October 1911.

On the fifth of October, the Italian Navy's landing force began their disembarkation at 7:30 am. Men from the battleship Sicilia landed first, followed by men from the Sardegna and one artillery unit. These men from the first regiment, commanded by Mario Gressi, occupied Fort Sultaniye without opposition from the Ottoman troops, who had moved further inland. Men from the Re Umberto, the second regiment commanded by Enrico Bonelli, followed suit with four additional artillery units, and by noon had raised the Italian flag at Fort Sultaniye. Meanwhile, Fort Hamidiye, the other main fort in the vicinity was also taken, unopposed, and by 16:30 the second regiment was now fully onshore and had reached the marketplace of Tripoli, where they reunited with the first regiment13.

Upon reaching the heart of Tripoli, Admiral Raffaele Borea Ricci d'Olmo, who had been appointed provisional Governor of Tripolitania, tried to maintain good relations with the Arab population in order to ensure they accepted the occupation with minimal resistance. The existing mayor of Tripoli, Hassan Karamanli, was permitted to continue in his office and was appointed deputy Governor of Tripolitania14.

Tripoli - digging trenches in destroyed Hamidie Fort. Alamy.

Bombing of Fort Hamidie in Tripoli by Italian military. Album Archivo ABC Charles Trampus. October 1911.

Postcard depicting the Defense of the Bumiliana Wells by Italian Forces, 1911.

Four days after the initial landings, Patriot forces and Ottoman troops, who had been in hiding just outside of Tripoli, launched an attack on an Italian position, south of the city, which was the main water supply for the city. This area was known as Bu Meliana Wells. The attack was thwarted with the aid of gunfire from the moored warships.

This attack led to the speeding up of Italian armed forces being transported to Tripoli and by the 12th October 1911, the Italian force in Tripoli grew to 35,000 men, who were under the command of General Carlo Caneva. At this point in time, most of the Ottoman forces had moved into the desert region, organising bases out of the range of the warships. There, they recruited local Arab volunteers and would continue their fight against the Italian occupation15.

Captured Arabs at Fountain of Bu Meliana, Tripoli.

Italian Soldiers Driving a Local Prisoner in Tripoli. 11 November 1911. lbum Archivo ABC Charles Trampus.

Driving Arab Prisoners by Italian Soldiers from Tripoli. 30 October 1911. Photo Illustration Bureau. Album Archivo ABC

The BATTLE OF BENGHAZI

Body of a Libyan killed by Italians in Benghazi. Album Archivo ABC. 31 November 1911.

Following the occupation of Tripoli, the cities of Tobruk, Derna and Homs came under assault and were occupied in succession, this just left Benghazi, which had the second largest garrison of the five cities. The Italians, determined to take the city, began the exportation of 15000 troops, with the first group of Italian soldiers arriving in Benghazi on the 18th October 1911. Upon their arrival, Italian military leaders demanded the surrender of the 400 regular Turkish forces, and the 2500 irregular troops, but the Turkish commander Chakir Bey refused to surrender the city16.

This refusal led on the 19th October, to the off shore Italian fleet beginning the bombardment of Benghazi, focusing on Juliana Beach, which was where the Italians were planning a mass landing of troops and the area needed to be cleared. Also targeted were the Turkish barracks and fortress in Berca, and the nearby governors residence. The Turkish armoury to the north of the town was also subjected to an assault. Attacks and counter attacks continued throughout the day, during which time the Italian marine forces landed on Juliano Beach, and forced the Turkish forces to retreat. The Italians, led by General Briccola then advanced on Berca, supported by bombardments from the Italian warships. By the afternoon, the Turkish forces had abandoned Berca, retreating northwards to the southern districts of Benghazi17.

A Map of Key Battlegrounds around Benghazi: ‘Bengasi e d’intorni’. Enrico Mercateli. 1912.

Following the occupation of Benghazi, neither force made a counter attack, with the Italians using the time to land further troops and the Turkish to enlist their Bedouin allies, the leader of which was Omar al-Mukhtar, in their fight against Italian colonisation. Although during this period there were minor squirmishes, neither side was willing to mount a major assault, preferring to gather forces18.

By mid November, under the command of Aziz bey El-Masri, the combined Turkish/Patriot forces had grown to roughly 15,000 and had begun raids on the Italian garrison in southern Benghazi, but protected by the naval retaliation the Italians were able to easily defend the position. Continued attacks in November and December were again thwarted by the Italian naval warships and by this time the number of Italian soldiers was in excess of 22,000. However, one battle on the 28th November at al Kufra, led to significant casualties on both sides, with each side claiming that they had forced the other to retreat. By the end of 1911, the battle for Benghazi appeared to have reached a stalemate, with the Italians holding their positions at the coastal forts, which were protected by the fleet, but not making further gains inland19.

However, this all changed in 1912, when a jihad was declared by Omar and other leaders of the Patriot forces. This led the Italians to build stronger defences and equip themselves with heavy artillery. These fortifications became the target for attack on numerous occasions, which all proved futile20.

Attacks and squirmishes, led by the combined Turkish and Patriot forces continued into March 1912, when the Italians turned the tables and led an assault against a large army of Patriot forces at Fojat,Benghazi, which became known as The Battle of Two Palms. This battle saw huge casualties for the Patriot forces, with approximately 400 killed and 500 captured21 This was the last major battle in Benghazi, with the Italians changing their game plan and using their naval fleet to succesfully attack and capture the Ottoman Empires regions of Rhodes and the Dodoecanese Islands, which were both situated in the Aegean Sea. After the loss of these islands, the Ottoman Empire conceded defeat and began peace talks with the Italian government.

The BATTLE OF ZANZUR

Throughout the latter months of 1911 into the spring of 1912, the Italian forces had on numerous occasions attacked and unsuccessfully attempted to capture the Turkish/Patriot stronghold of Zanzur, to the northeast of Tripoli. One such assault took place on the 17th December 1911, when an unsuccessful attack on Turkish/Patriot forces, led to the loss of 50 Italian soldiers, with another 100 reported wounded. The Italian forces made further attempts, once in January and twice in February 1912, all of the attempts were forcefully repelled, by the combined Turkish/Patriot forces22.

During this period, the Turkish/Patriot forces who were surrounding Tripoli made relentless assaults on the city's perimeter defences, which had been set up by the Italians to protect Tripoli and their forces23.

Battle of Zanzur, June 8, 1912. Italian victory. Illustration from Italian Newspaper ‘La Domenica del Corriere’. June, 1912

In March 1912, determined to capture and occupy Zanzur, the Italian forces made multiple assaults, which included the use of airships to drop hand grenades and bombs, but throughout the attacks the defenders remained strong and held onto Zanzur24.

On the morning of the 8th June 1912, having amasssed a far larger armed force, including 14 battalions of infantry, a cavalry brigade and a mountain artillery battery, the Italians began an assault on the Turkish/Patriot forces, who were positioned on the east side of Zanzur, at the Abd-el-Gilil Heights. The battle was long and hard with the Italians having to fight off a flank assault by Turkish/Patriot reinforcements, from Bu Meliana. The battle ended with the Heights being secured by the Italians, but the Patriot/Turkish forces retained possesion of the Zanzur oasis25.

The cost to the Turkish/Patriot forces was extensive, with an estimated loss of 1000 - 1400 lives, with a further 279 wounded. With the Italians fatalities numbering just 4326.

Gaining occupation of the Abd-el-Gilil Heights, allowed the Italians a certain degree of control over the oasis, although this was far from their main objective, which was to secure the whole of the area, which included the Valley of Hira, the Heights of Sidi Balal and lastly, the hills which ran along the south side of the Zanzur oasis27.

In Cyrenaica, the Turkish/Patriot forces suffered a huge defeat at Derna, with a loss of 2000 men. This in turn, affected their ability to continue the resistance in Tripoli and on the 20th September 1912, taking advantage of the loss, the Italians led by Lt General Ragni, launched an assault on Zanzur and the Heights of Sidi-Balal. The battle raged for 12 hours, before the Italian military finally defeated the Turkish/Patriot forces28.

Omar and his forces played an important role in these battles, employing guerilla tactics such as targeting supply lines, disrupting communication networks and launching stealth attacks on Italian troops: these guerrilla techniques resulted in numerous defeats of the beleaguered Italians battalions, and caused notable casualties29. To the local resitance’s great advantage was Omar's vast knowledge of the desert and mountain passes, which to the enemy were uncharted territories. After battles, Omar and his men would retreat to the desert, rendering the task of finding them nearly impossible for the Italians. However, the vastly superior weaponry of the Italians and their use of aerial bombardment eventually overwhelmed the Ottoman and local resistance forces.

Turkish soldiers firing into the air to take down the Italian aviation. Illustration from Italian newspaper ‘La Domenica del Corriere’ October 1911.

An illustration circa 1912 of an Italian airplane of the Royal Italian Army dropping propaganda leaflets over Arab horsemen in Libya during the Italian Turkish war of 1911 to 1912. Alamy.

By mid-1912, both the Italian and the resistance forces had suffered significant losses and numerous casualties. With the war seemingly reaching a stalemate, efforts were made by international leaders to bring the war to a peaceful end. Diplomatic efforts prevailed with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on 17th October 1912, at Lake Geneva30.

The infirmery of the surgery ward in Libya, during the Italo-Turkish war in Tripolitana (1912).Alamy.

A surgeon treating wounded soldiers in an Italian Field Hospital near Tripoli. circa 1911. Alamy.

the treaty of lausanne, 1912

Under the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne, also known as the Treaty of Ouchy, which was named after the popular lakeside resort, south of the centre of Lausanne, at which the treaty was executed, the Ottoman Empire conceded all rights that it had in Tripoli and Cyrenaica to Italy, effectively ending the war31. This was done in exchange for the return of the Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean Sea, occupied by the Italians since the Italo-Turkish War 191232.

Turkish and Italian delegations at Lausanne for the Treaty of Ouchy, also known as the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne. From Right to left : Giuseppe Volpi, Roumbeyoglou Fahreddin, Guido Fusinato, Mèhemmed Naby Bey, Pietro Bertolini. Creative Commons. Wikimedia.

Of particular note for the future state of affairs in Libya, the Treaty of Lausanne included a concession by the Italian government permitting the Ottoman Sultan of Caliph to choose a representative to look after his religious and diplomatic interests in Libya, as well as the retention of the right to appoint the Grand Qadi of Tripoli, who, as an Islamic Adjudicator, would have the power to oversee political disputes as well as religious matters. To many historians, this served as proof to the Libyan people that, despite the formal outcome of the Treaty, the Ottoman Sultan was still the legitimate leader of the region, given that in Libya, as in most territories of the Middle East and North Africa, religion and politics were not divided, as they were in Europe33.

This agreement was considered by many pundits to be a strategic error of the Italian government, based on a grave misunderstanding of regional sociology and politics, far from decidedly determining the state of affairs in Libya, it emboldened the Libyan tribes to continue their battle against Italian colonisation34. These skirmishes and battles continued into the Period of The Accords, which lasted from 1917 - 1923, with Omar and the Senussi tribal bands being at the heart of the conflict35.

Newsreel footage of the Treaty of Ouchy, 1912. British Pathe footage.

FOOTNOTES.

  1. “Idris of Libya”. Wikipedia. August 20. 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_of_LibyaEvans-Pritchard, E.E. The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1954. pp 12-13.

  2. “Idris of Libya”. Wikipedia. August 20. 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_of_Libya.

  3. Vandewalle, Dirk. A History of Modern Libya. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2012.

  4. “Savari”. Wikipedia. August 20. 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savari#History.

  5. “Italian Spahis”. Wikipedia. August 20. 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Spahisc.

  6. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954. Pg.12-13.

  7. Ibid.

  8. Page, Melvin E. Colonialism. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. 2003. Pg. 749.

  9. Ibid.

  10. Ibid.

  11. Vandefort, Bruce. Towards the Fourth Shore in Italian War for Libya (1911-1912). Rome: Stato Maggiore dell'esercito, Ufficio storico (2012).

  12. Ibid.

  13. Gabriele, Mariano. La Marina Nella Guerra Italo-Turca. Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare. 1998.

  14. Ibid.

  15. Vandefort, Bruce. Towards the Fourth Shore in Italian War for Libya (1911-1912). Rome: Stato Maggiore dell'esercito, Ufficio storico (2012).

  16. Beehler, Commodore W.H. The History of the Italian-Turkish War, September 29 1911 to October 18 1912. Annapolis: the Advertiser-Republican. 1913.

  17. Stephenson, Charles. A Box of Sand: The Italo-Ottoman War 1911-1912. Ticehurst: Tattered Flag Press. 2014.

  18. Beehler, Commodore W.H. The History of the Italian-Turkish War, September 29 1911 to October 18 1912. Annapolis: the Advertiser-Republican. 1913.

  19. Stephenson, Charles. A Box of Sand: The Italo-Ottoman War 1911-1912. Ticehurst: Tattered Flag Press. 2014.

  20. Beehler, Commodore W.H. The History of the Italian-Turkish War, September 29 1911 to October 18 1912. Annapolis: the Advertiser-Republican. 1913.

  21. Ibid.

  22. Beehler, Commodore W.H. The History of the Italian-Turkish War, September 29, 1911 to October 18 1912. Annapolis: The Advertiser-Republican. 1913. Pg. 52-53.

  23. Ibid., Pg.62-63.

  24. Ibid., Pg.83.

  25. Reports of the Italian General Staff. The Italo-Turkish War (1911-12) (in Italian). Translated by First Lieutenant Renato Tittoni, U.S.M.C. Kansas City: Franklin Hudson Publishing Company. Pg.75. 1914.

  26. Jaques, Tony. Dictionary of Battles and Sieges. Vol. 3. Greenwood. 2007.

  27. Beehler, Commodore W.H. . The History of the Italian-Turkish War, September 29, 1911 to October 18 1912. Annapolis: The Advertiser-Republican. 1913. Pg.93-94.

  28. Ibid., Pg.95.

  29. Jaques, Tony. Dictionary of Battles and Sieges. Vol. 3. Greenwood. 2007.

  30. “Treaty of Lausanne.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed November 17, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Lausanne-1923.

  31. Ibid.

  32. “Italian Islands of the Aegean.” Wikipedia, October 23, 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Islands_of_the_Aegean.

  33. Wright, John. A History of Libya. London: Hurst and Co Publishers Limited.  2010. Pg. 113-114.

  34. Ibid.

  35. Ibid.